How Did the Month of February Get Its Name

As the month best known for Valentine’s Day—a legendary saint beheaded for his religious convictions, not his passion for true love—February had close ties to ancient Rome. Apparently, the Roman king  Numa Pompilius  divided the year  into twelve months, while Ovid  suggests  the  decemviri  moved it  to the second month of the year.  Its nominal origins also hailed from the Eternal City, but where did February get its magical moniker? Ancient Rituals...or Purell? In 238 A.D., the grammarian Censorinus  composed his De die natali, or The Birthday Book,  in which he wrote about everything from calendric cycles to the basic chronology of the world. Censorinus clearly had a passion for time, so he delved into the origins of the months, as well. January was named for the double-headed god Janus, who looked into the past (the old year) and present-future (the new year), but its follow-up was called after â€Å"the old word februum,† writes Censorinus. What’s februum, you may ask? A means of ritual purification. Censorinus claims that â€Å"anything that consecrates or purifies is a februum,† while februamenta signifies rites of purification. Items can become purified, or februa, â€Å"in different ways in different rites.† The poet Ovid concurs on this origin, writing in his Fasti that â€Å"the fathers of Rome called purification februa; the word (and maybe the rite) was of Sabine origin, according to Varro’s On the Latin Language.  Purification was a big deal, as Ovid mockingly quotes, â€Å"Our ancestors believed every sin and cause of evil/Could be erased by rites of purification.† The sixth-century A.D. writer Johannes Lydius had a slightly different interpretation, stating, â€Å"The name of the month of February came from the goddess called Februa; and the Romans understood Februa as an overseer and purifier of things.† Johannes stated that Februus meant â€Å"the underground one† in Etruscan, and that deity was worshipped for fertility purposes. But this may have been an innovation specific to Johannes’s sources.   I Want to Go to the Festival So what cleansing ceremony occurred during the second thirty days of the New Year that was important enough to merit a month being named after it? There wasn’t one in particular; February had tons of cleansing rituals. Even St. Augustine got on this in The City of God when he says â€Å"†¦in the month of February ... the sacred purgation takes place, which they call februum, and from which the month get its name.†Ã‚   Pretty much anything could become a februum.  At that time, Ovid says the high priests would â€Å"ask the King [the rex sacrorum, a high-ranking priest] and the Flamen [Dialis]/for woollen cloths, called februa in the ancient tongue†; during this time, â€Å"houses are cleansed [with] the roasted grain and salt,† given to  the lictor, a bodyguard to an important Roman official. Another means of purification is given to a branch from a tree whose leaves were worn in a priestly crown. Ovid quips wryly, â€Å"In short anything used to purify our bodies/had that title [of februa] in the days of our hairy ancestors.† Even whips and woodland gods were purifiers! According to Ovid, the Lupercalia  features another kind of februum, something that was a little more SM.  It took place in mid-February  and celebrated the wild sylvan god Faunus (a.k.a.  Pan).  During the festival, nude priests called Luperci performed ritual purification by whipping spectators, which also promoted  fertility. As Plutarch writes in his Roman Questions, â€Å"this performance constitutes a rite of purification of the city,† and they struck â€Å"with a kind of leather thong they call februare, the word meaning ‘to purify.’† The Lupercalia, which Varro says â€Å"was called also Februatio, Festival of Purification,’†Ã‚  decontaminated the city of Rome itself. As Censorinus observes, â€Å"So the Lupercalia is more properly called Februatus, ‘purified, and therefore the month is called February.† February: Month of  the Dead? But February wasnt just a month of cleanliness! To be fair, though, purification and ghosts arent all that different. In order to create a cleansing ritual, one must sacrifice a ritual victim, whether flowers, food, or a bull. Originally, this was the last month of the year, dedicated to the ghosts of the deceased, thanks to its ancestor-worshipping festival of Parentalia. During that holiday, temple doors were  closed and sacrificial fires were doused to avoid malevolent influences influencing holy places. Johannes Lydius even theorizes the months name came from feber, or lamentation, because this was the time when people would mourn the departed. It was filled with rituals of propitiation and purification in order to placate angry ghosts from haunting the living during festival time, as well as to send them back whence they came after the New Year. February came after the dead went back to their spectral homes. As Ovid notes, this â€Å"time is pure, having placated the dead/When the days devoted to the departed are over.† Ovid mentions another festival called Terminalia and recalls, â€Å"February that follows was once last in the ancient year/And your worship, Terminus, closed the sacred rites.† Terminus was the perfect deity to celebrate at the end of the year since he reigned over boundaries.  At the end of the month was his holiday, celebrating the god of boundaries who, according to Ovid, â€Å"separates the fields with his sign and â€Å"set[s] bounds to peoples, cities, great kingdoms.† And establishing the boundaries between the living and dead, pure and impure, sounds like a great job!

Two Opposing Perspectives Of Islam - 2110 Words

Maria Salazar Mr. Thornton AP English 8 12 January 2015 Two Opposing Perspectives of Islam By definition, Islam is a religion of those who obey the doctrines of the Prophet Muhammad. Muhammad, who in the 7th century lived in Arabia, initiated a religious movement that throughout the Middle East was supported by the Arabs. Today, not only in Middle East origins, Islam has adherents, where it is the dominant religion in all countries (Non-Arab, and Arab), but also in other parts of Africa, Asia and, of course, as well as in the United States. Those who are loyal to Islam are called Muslims. The Sunni, Shiite conflict in Iraq started long before the ruling of Saddam Hussein, but when Hussein became Prime Minister of the country the conflict between the two religious sects was taken to a new level. Right when Hussein gained full power, under his control, began years of persecution of the Shiite Muslims in the country. But, before this happened, the conflict was based upon Muhammad and who was to rule after he had died. When Muhammad had died there were many disputes on who sho uld succeed the Prophet Muhammad after his death in 632. Shiites believed that the prophet’s son-in-law, Ali, was to be the successor. Both consider the Koran the word of God. But, devoutness and religious practice distinguish between the two sects. However, Islam teaches that all Islam is equal so Sunni and Shiite sects fight with each other not only because of â€Å"hatred† but, also because of religiousShow MoreRelatedThe Modern Age Of Islam1179 Words   |  5 Pagesreligion, with neither answer showing a complete, absolute advantage over the other. This is shown through Atta Turk completely removing Islam out of the newly formed Turkish society, the Baath Party’s secular ideology while still committing massacre, and Hezbollah using a radicalized form of religion to gain political strength. The beginning of the modern age of Islam can be marked with Napoleon’s conquest of Egypt and the subsequent conquest by Britain. This defeat indicated to the leaders of the IslamicRead MoreA Satirical Article On Cultural Relativism Essay1617 Words   |  7 Pagesin which the views of the world are diverse depending on different cultural perspectives. Charlie Hebdo is a satirical weekly newspaper, it takes contentious world issues such as religion and politics and holds them up to the world with the intent to disgrace individuals, cooperation’s and society in order to get them to improve. Due to its almost antagonistic manner it was a successful target of a ‘terrorist attack’. 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Alex Haley assisted Malcolm X in his writing, and together they produced a masterpiece. This book appeals to those interested in social justice and reform, as well as religion and spiritual enli ghtenment. TheRead MoreDomestic American Terrorism1780 Words   |  7 PagesState borders. The United States has strangely used a near Catch-22 to handle dilemmas. The United States has allowed perspective to become reality, whether with oneself or regarding issues abroad, specifically in the Middle East. Terrorism is the use or threat of fear for political or economical gain. An internal characteristic of terrorism is how dependent it is of perspective, one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter. To understand â€Å"terrorism,† a focus must be applied to the historyRead MoreThe Biblical Cosmogony Is Based On The Provisions Of Genesis1282 Words   |  6 Pagesscientific views such as evolution theories because it suggests that God created everything by word of mouth and the work of his hands. The religious creation theory is the foundation of major spiritual convictions, which include Christianity, Judaic and Islam (Blumenthal 1). According to the Christian bible, creation was done in six days contradicting the scientific view that organisms develop over long periods of time. Similarly, the holy Quran used by Muslims describes Allah (GOD) as the sole creatorRead MorePersepolis by Marjane Satrapi970 Words   |  4 Pagesone during the Islamic revolution, it created a rift between Islamic fundamentalists and citizens who believed in a more modern practice of Islam, one in which civil liberties would not be infringed on by the Islamic theocracy. 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Did School Helped in Covering Up the Crime Free Essays

In my assessment of the facts, I believe that Eastern Michigan University did not intentionally covered-up the death of Laura Dickinson. Though the Clery Act requires schools to report any crimes and other threats to safety to students, it ignores such law because it lacked clear decision as to what to do with the incident (Goldman). Aside from that, it is beyond doubt that the school failed in initiating investigation on the incident. We will write a custom essay sample on Did School Helped in Covering Up the Crime or any similar topic only for you Order Now The tragic incident may also have distracted the school administrator as to what really happened to Laura until the body cannot be revealed to the students. Apart from that, the school may have feared that announcing the death of Laura may disturb their investigation and may create fear among students that they cannot control. The incident may have been perceived by the school as a threat to the peace within the school. Furthermore, the incident may have happened the first time and it is not prepared and lacked the proper guidelines in responding to such incident. It would also be unfair to conclude that the incident was covered- up because the school did not hid the body. If it was the school’s intention to cover-up the incident, it could have done anything that would disallow anyone from discovering it. Besides, the school made a statement after ten days. Thereafter, informed Laura’s parents after ten weeks. Ten weeks may be considered to be unreasonable for the school to finally decide in revealing the truth but it may be considered only as a negligence and indecisiveness on their part. The school may have feared losing its reputation once the incident is fully made known in public and may have been confused about the privacy of the people concerned. Aside from failing to report the incident, there are no other circumstances that would strongly determine that the school tried to hide the incident from the students and the public as well. Furthermore, the school may have been ignorant about the consequences of its act. Hence, the school did not intentionally covered-up the incident. How to cite Did School Helped in Covering Up the Crime, Papers

Women free essay sample

Granny writing to you to Inform you of how we did things In 1920. Things such as clothing, fashion and how It changed things for good. Hope things are going well with you, at the same time there were many things that I adopted to the change as well as others getting the fashion change. You will not believe how sexual activity and other social interaction changed as well; it has a lot to do with how you made it here to be my lovely DARPA.The magazines and movies played a very big part of shaping up things for us as ladies. Our clothing developed a closer relationship to art by the end of the First World War (the roaring sis). We simply would put together elegant designs with fabrics. We would coordinate outfits with hats, shoes, stockings, handbags and jewelry. That wouldnt look good in black and white photographs. The Dresses worn were shorter than the ones worn before 1920. Some women were there stocking more visible than others, they were being made with designs to match outfits as well.Now DARPA your granny wanted to be a part of the changes that were going on but your late great father would allow those types of changes under his roof. Some of the girls I would often hang out with truly didnt understand his reasoning, neither did l. The sexual activeness as well as other social interaction increased in the (1920), with the use of automobiles. There were young girls as young as 1 6 that would sneak out of the house climbing down from their bedroom window not trying to wake up their parents. In the cars there were couples that would be found by the police having sex.Keep in mind that in the cities this was hipping more so it grew rapidly. A term came about in which we call prostitution, this Is where a person would have sex In return for money. So with all that said In some states there was a law that was put In place for couples not to kiss In public. In some dance halls you couldnt even dance up close. There were people thrown in Jail for violating these laws. So for us being a woman was a complex balance between respect and freedom circumscribed our social and economic world. Women were cutting their hair into bob shaped, just fit in the era of the flapper.This emerged in 1926 to value the pushing lines of our sexuality. As you may know your grandfather my dad wasnt going for this look either It was a change that he TLD allow under his roof. Although my mother went ahead a cut my hair anyway it caused so much drama in our home. The neighbors thought I was a family member visiting and ask my father about me when he came home from work one evening and he told them he didnt know who they were talking about so he came inside and there I was sitting in the television. My father was so mad he made he my mother didnt talk for a week.That was the last time Id ever go behind his back again. All this happened for a reason later that year we were headed to a major changed we a ladles wanted to do a just as much as the males could do. We wanted to voted, by land and work just like he men did. So we came into a prohibition, this was approved by 36 states; the Amendment was signed on January 16, 1920. This was put into play to help protect women and children from alcoholism. There were people that believed that women were the mall cause of thing going this way. Women were drinking, hanging out with were married.A prohibition law was passed to help out America for many of these things. So the government decided to pass laws on (PDA). This soon fails so they came out with an Anti-prohibition law. This was for those people who were against the prohibition law. There were people that didnt think all these new changes that ere going on werent that bad. They even were thinking that drinking was a respectable thing to do in some cases. Some the ads that I remember are Black Jack gum (Good for the throat), Old North State Cigarettes, Edgerton. (http:// www. Youth. Com/watch? =Xenophobia) The roles that movies favored was pretty much for entrainment, leisure time it also showed new styles and was to live. The magazines played a major role of keeping up to date on the styles that were out, so they would be the first ones to wear in the public eye. Magazines also contain advertising products such as vacuums that would do twice the work, the ads would ell if you get this you want be bored. After finding out all this information these women were buying swimsuits, more beauty products and more shoes, in which sowed toes, strapless, and heals out. Most women would look forward to sportswear at a younger age along with radio broadcasting songs about womens needs and wants. The magazines contained pictures of clothes showing a little more than what we should show as the women are to be. Jazz was on the best role models for the sass it was the hottest thing from (1920-1923). The radios played Jazz music on the regular in 1926; artists such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Elongating, and Paul Godsons and your grandfathers favorite.This new music genre was not only recognized as a fashion but as entertainment. The largest change that I encountered was when Henry Ford Created the Automobile. It brought about a lot of Americans buying cars which leaded to the government having to build more roads and it caused Florida to cut into the glaciers which also brought about tsunamis. In the year of 1929 (Black Tuesday) the stock market crashed, and the countrys like for Jazz is over. But the stock market had little to do with the economy since very few people owned stocks and securities.It certainly help provoke help of the nations banking system, due to bank failures, there was a rash of personal bankruptcies and evictions. And since the banks were about to crash anyway but a large number of fames and workers were not able to buy goods that were needed as well as pay off loans that were overdue. So the UN-bought goods stayed on the shelves, causing numerous numbers of people to lose their Jobs. So with all that information I Just gave you my DARPA. I hope that you may have learned and be able to teach girls and women about being a lady. Love Granny!!!

Black Death Muslim and Christian Responses free essay sample

Imagine yourself alone on a street corner, coughing up bloody mucous each time you exhale. You are gasping for a full breath of air, but realizing that is not possible, you give up your fight to stay alive. Youre thinking why is this happening to me? That is how the victims of the Black Death felt. In five short years, the plague killed between 25 and 45% of the populations it encountered. So how different were the Christian and Muslim responses? In 1348 Christians who were followers of Jesus Christ and Muslims who followed the teachings of Muhammad came face to face with the Black Death. In truth, Muslims and Christians responded in many different ways. Even the way the blamed others for the cause of the plague and religious views about the disease were very much different. In a similar manner both religions acted completely out the norm, they basically set aside their spiritual beliefs for a moment. We will write a custom essay sample on Black Death Muslim and Christian Responses or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page One of the similar responses between the Muslims and Christians were acting out of the ordinary. According to document five both religions were finding non-religious alternatives to prevent the Black Death. In some cases, the Christians would try to sleeping on their backs to prevent the plague, while the Muslims would even avoid going outside. In addition they both drank a solution of Armenian clay to cleanse the body and built fires hoping that this would purify the contaminated air. Based on document nine both the religions united together to pray and they went back to their religious ways. These documents prove that each religion in some cases stepped out their religious backgrounds to try to prevent the Black Death. Religious views played a big part on the different ways the Christians and Muslims responded to the Black Death. The Christians basically thought the plague was their fault. They believe that they’re being punished for their sins they’ve imputed against God. On the other hand the Muslims are taking the plague lightly. They believe that â€Å"a Muslim should devoutly accept the divine act. The Muslims also believe that this occurrence is a blessing from God. In addition document two explains the Black Death Mortality by comparing each religions death rate. The mortality estimate Phillip Ziegler calculated for the Muslims shows that about 33% of the Middle Eastern population have deceased. While the Christian population in Europe mortality rate was only 31%. This document proves that the Muslims population decreased greater than the Christians. During the era of the Black Plague, the Christian community held a lood-thirsty lead hand in the fact of the matter, while the Islam society didn’t blame the epidemic on others and or try to solve the rampant disease with violence. According to document seven the Christians blamed the Jews for causing the Black Death; they believe the Jews poisoned the wells. The Muslims didn’t blame anyone for the occurrence of the Black Death, based on document ten. This proves that the Muslims believed that the plague was meant to happen, like document four said, â€Å"the plague is a blessing from God. †

Early History of Japan The Battle for the Surrendered Realm

Early History of Japan The Battle for the Surrendered Realm Identifications The battle of Sekigahara, also called â€Å"The Battle for the Surrendered Realm† took place in the early 17th century. Sekigahara was the gate or passage between The East and West of Japan. It was believed that whoever had jurisdiction over this portion ran the whole of Japan.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Early History of Japan: The Battle for the Surrendered Realm specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The battle of Sekigahara is generally referred to as the last of the major conflicts of the Azuchi–Momoyama period. On 21st October 1600, it was decisive in clearing the path to the shogunate for Tokaguwa. It is after this battle that the Japanese people enjoyed a two hundred and fifty year period of peace (Bohner 283). The warring states period, also referred to as the Sengoku period in the history of Japan was a period of political intrigue, social upheaval and an almost constant military conflict which roughly lasted from the mid 15th century to the early 17th century. At the beginning of the 5th century, misery and suffering that had been caused by natural disasters, such as famines and earthquakes triggered armed rebellion by farmers who were weary of taxes and debts. This led to the Onin war that was rooted in the economic distress brought about by shogunal succession disputes. This is how the warring states period began. The eastern and western armies and their allies fought around Kyoto for 11 years then it later spread to the outlying provinces. This period eventually led to political power unification under the Tokugawa Shogunate. The floating world, also referred to as Ukiyo is a term that was used to describe the aspect of seeking for pleasure in the urban lifestyle in the Tokugawa or Edo-period Japan. This was between 1600 and 1867, the 250 years that Japan enjoyed relative peace. The culture of the floating world developed in the red light district of Ed o called Yoshiwara. In this location were many brothels, kabuki theaters and chashitsu tea houses, which were visited frequently by the growing middleclass population of Japan. This culture spread to other cities including Kyoto and Osaka (Lockard 543).Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Kabuki is a Japanese classical dance drama performed in Kabuki theatres. It is defined as the art of dancing and singing. It is characterized by a unique elaborate make up put on by its performers and drama stylization. It was created around 1600 by a shrine maiden called Okuni, from Izumo shrine. In the early days, it was comprised of dances performed by women, most of who were prostitutes off stage. This is the reason that women were banned by the government, as an effort to protect public morals. The Treaty of Kanagawa is the agreement that was signed on March 31st 1854 by Commodore Perry in Tok yo after a period of discussions between the United States’ president Millard Fillmore and Japanese officials. The terms of the treaty involved the protection the protection of American seamen by Japan. It also involved the opening of two ports, Shimoda and Hokodate for provisioning and fuelling of American ships. Japan also granted the United States permission to appoint its consuls, who could live in the port cities. The treaty of Kanagawa consequently led to Japan opening up to carry out trades with the United States of America and the West, after over two hundred years of closure. Tokugawa Japan The Tokugawa shoguns dominated the Edo period, which saw Japan enjoy two hundred and fifty years of peace. This was after the warring states period and Tokugawa Ieyasu was in power and had been granted the Shogun status. Ieyasu and his descendants adapted policies which ensured political and social order, as well as order in international relations. Most of the local territorial l ords (daimyos) were politically united during the Tokugawa period. This prompted the application of the peace and unification policy. In order to weaken the daimyos’ political force, they were forced to spend half of their duty time in Edo. This enabled the Tokugawa to keep a close watch over them, to understand both their plans and activities. The frequent up and down movement between Edo and the daimyo’s home territories was a Tokugawa strategy. It put an enormous financial strain on the daimyo, making them no match to the Tokugawa allies. It also distorted their focus on building a large military. To weaken them further, the daimyos were prohibited from building ships and castles. These reasons were instrumental for bringing and maintaining peace in Japan.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Early History of Japan: The Battle for the Surrendered Realm specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A strict seclusion policy in Tokugawa was enforced. This targeted the Christian missionaries, whom the Shogunate was against because he considered Christianity to be destabilizing and it made the new central leaders of Japan uneasy. They feared that increased loyalty to a foreign based church and religion could pose a threat to their leadership (Deal 13). Strict social reforms were also enforced by Tokugawa. This was done by the creating of a rigid caste system of peasants, samurais and merchants. Among these groups, the samurais were the only ones that were allowed to carry weapons. This was a caste that no one else would change. The Tokugawa Shogunate enforced a policy by the name Kaikin, which prohibited Japan’s contact with most of the other outside countries. His limited the influence and interference of the outside world to the Japanese culture and cultural beliefs (Laver 1). During Tokugawa, there was a significant development in Japan. There was the development of castle towns, thriving cities and an increase in commoditization in agriculture. Groundwork for modernization was laid through an increase in concomitant print culture and increase in literacy. Japan In Turmoil American Commodore Matthew Perry sailed his four ships up to the Tokyo bay harbor with the aim of seeking a re-establishment of regular trade with America. This was the fist time after more than two hundred years that Japan had prohibited trade between itself and the western world. Initially, Perry sailed to the Bonin and Ryukyus islands located southeast and southwest of the main islands of Japan. This step enabled him gain territory for the United States of America and seek help from the natives of these two islands. After the Ryukyus and Bonin islands, he sailed northwards to Edo bay. With him was a letter from the president of the United States addressed to the Japanese emperor. Addressing the letter to the emperor demonstrated the United States’ lack of knowledge on the government and society of Japan. During that time, the leadership of Japan was under the Tokugawa Shogunate, ad the emperor’s power was insignificant.Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to the US Department of State article titled The United States and the Opening to Japan, 1853, Perry’s arrival in the Japanese waters with a squadron of U.S navy ships was aimed at displaying America’s willingness to use its advanced firepower. This, they believed, was the only way they could convince the Japanese authorities to accept trade with the western nations. Perry also carried along wit him various gifts for the Emperor in Japan. The gifts included a telescope, a telegraph a working steam locomotive model and a variety of liquors from the west. These gifts were intended to show Japan the superiority of the western culture. Perry’s mission was to complete the agreement of the United States with the Government of Japan for the protection of stranded or shipwrecked Americans. In addition to this, one or more ports for supplies and refueling were to be opened. Perry’s display of audacity and the readiness of using force in the approach into Tokyo’s forbidden waters prompted the Japanese authorities to accept President Fillmore’s letter. Perry retuned the following spring to receive Japan’s answer, with an even bigger squadron. The Japanese grudgingly accepted his demands and it is then that the Kanagwa treaty was signed. This treaty prompted the opening up of Japan to trade with the other western countries. Despite the reluctance displayed by Japan in opening its ports to the modern trade, the trade gave Japan an access to modern technological development. When it opened up to the world, Japan was able to modernize its military by obtaining more advanced equipment. This enabled it to rise into the strongest Asian power in the pacific. The forcing of Japan by America ad other western powers to indulge into modern commercial interactions worked alongside other internal factors to weaken Tokugawa Shogunate’s position to a point that led to the shogun falling out of power. Thus, the emperor gai ned control of the country in the 1868 Meiji restoration. This was followed by long term effects in the modernization and rule in Japan. Bohner, Hermann. â€Å"The Battle of Sekigahara.† libweb. Libweb. Web. Deal, William. Handbook to life in medieval and early modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print. Laver, Michael. The Sakoku Edicts and the Politics of Tokugawa Hegemony. New York: Cambria Press, 2011. Print. Lockard, Craig. Lockards Societies, Networks, and Transitions since 1450: A Global History. Massachusetts: Cengage Learning, 2007. Print. U.S. Department of State. â€Å"The United States and the Opening to Japan, 1853.† U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State. Web.

TRIBOROUGH BRIDGE PROJECT (NY) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

TRIBOROUGH BRIDGE PROJECT (NY) - Essay Example Construction of the bridges commenced in 1929. The total cost of constructing the bridge was announced to be more than $60 million, exceeding that of the Hoover Dam. The bridge was officially opened on July 11, 1936. Triborough Bridge Project is officially referred to as Robert F. Kennedy Bridge. The bridge carries 8 lanes of 278 I-278 and 6 lanes of NY 900G. The bridge is designed as a suspension, lift and truss bridge. The total length of the bridge comprises of three spans: 2,780 feet, 770 feet and 1,600 feet through Queens, Manhattan, and Bronx respectively. Constructors used both hand tools and specialised tools and equipment for constructing the complex bridge. Similarly, both specialised engineers and unskilled manpower was critical for the project completion. Among the methods that were used for constructing the bridge include balanced cantilever, incremental launching, advanced shoring, and heavy lifting. If the bridge was to be built, the constructors would consider building the roofing for protecting pedestrians and cyclists from hot sunshine and

Econ2010-4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Econ2010-4 - Assignment Example es identifying â€Å"Social Cost†; market â€Å"equilibrium quantity consumed and price†; â€Å"external cost of antibiotic use†; â€Å"deadweight loss†; â€Å"efficient equilibrium† if one exists; and â€Å"private value†. 3. Earlier in the Economics 2010 course we learned that a tax on an ordinary good increases deadweight loss. Does the same impact result with the imposition of a tax on a good with an external cost? Explain. Yes; a tax would cause a change in the equilibrium price and quantity resulting to a inefficient market. 4. Explain the use of the â€Å"COASE THEOREM† in solving private problems of externalities. Under what conditions does the Coase Theorem breakdown as a mechanism for solving private externality issues and restoring efficient market equilibrium allocation? Explain. The theorem states that in case there is a conflict of property rights the parties involved may negotiate on terms that seem to be more beneficial to them than the assigned rights of the property. The theorem will breakdown when there are huge costs associated with bargaining. 5. Explain and/or graph with explanation the difference between controlling and regulating a negative externality by use of a â€Å"Corrective Tax†; a â€Å"Pollution permit system and market†, or a â€Å"Command and control† regulation. Explain the pros and cons of these 3 types of resolution of the negative externality problem. It is the summation of all the sales that a company makes together with other additional sources if incomes for a given period of time during the production process for a given product. It is usually given as Total revenue = price Ãâ€" quantity + other incomes Opportunity cost is the cost that somebody suffers for choosing the alternative decision over the other and it is always considered that the best choice is made between the options; the lesser privileged choice is foregone to pursue the other for more benefits to be yielded. The cost of the neglected choice is considered

Constitutional Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Constitutional Law - Essay Example The two legislative chambers House of Lords and House of Commons are the custodians of bringing changes and interventions in the constitution however judiciary has the power to exercise. Bringing a constitutional change without the acceptance by court is therefore not possible and applicable. There has been an apparent separation of powers between the parliament and judiciary. The constitution of Britain determines boundaries of institutions so that they would exercise their respective legitimate powers. There have been several cases which indicate that Parliament enforcing an unlawful legislation in opposition to Britain’s constitution demolished by the Britain judiciary. Hence bringing a constitutional change in UK is complicated and difficult. The orientation of British Judiciary has remained to escort parliament in many legal legislative measures which would safeguard the constitution. The case of Immigration and Asylum in this regard caries colossal importance as the British parliament made changes in immigration rules without judicial review. 2 Courts rejected this decision by the parliament and made certain that without concerning courts, such decisions would not be made in future. The parliament had to eventually withdraw their decision as the supremacy of judiciary/courts is the name of the game in Britain. 2 Supremacy of Parliament has been always there in the country and they ensure to bring fundamental changes and developments in constitution which is towards national integrity and uprightness. Balance of powers among institutions is the elegance and sophistication of United Kingdom’s constitution. The orientation of courts is not to overrule legislative measures made by the parliament and show its supremacy; but they intend to follow the decisions which do not contradict with the previous court verdicts. Prior

The Relationship Between Customer Satisfaction And Organisational Profitability Finance Essay

The Relationship Between Customer Satisfaction And Organisational Profitability Finance Essay It is well known fact that the goal of any organisation is to meet the needs and the requirements of its stakeholders. Satisfying this need will not only ensure the survival of the organisation but also allow it to flourish. Among the several stakeholders, customers are presumed to be one of the most important stakeholders as no organisation can survive and succeed without them. Accordingly, marketers emphasize on research in the area of consumer behaviour and particularly behavioural intention. Knowledge of consumer behaviour will go a long way in ensuring effective marketing policies towards the interest of customers which will eventually facilitates positive customer attitude towards the organisations. More especially, since customer behavioural intention is a strong indication of his actual behaviour. 2. As a result of financial sector liberalization in Sri Lanka in the 1979, the banking sector experienced a boom. Low entry requirements such as capital of Rs 10 million by the regulatory authority and the high premiums that could be earned through foreign exchange business led to the quick entry by new players into the lucrative banking industry. In Sri Lanka between the period of 1979 to 2011 the number of commercial banks rose from 11 to 32 (Central Bank of Sri Lanka- CBSL)  [6]   3. The banking industry is highly competitive, with banks not only competing among each other; but also with non-banks and other financial institutions (Hull, 2002)  [7]  . Most bank product developments are easy to duplicate and when banks provide nearly identical services, they can only distinguish themselves on the basis of price and quality. Therefore, customer retention is potentially an effective tool that banks can use to gain a strategic advantage and survive in todays ever-increasing banking competitive environment. The majority of Sri Lankan commercial banks are owns by Sri Lanka Banking companies and the States and they are not much diversified in terms of the products and services they offer. Therefore almost all banks are offered almost identical products to their customers. Mendzela, was of the view that it is an indication of bank reaching the maturity phase of the product lifecycle and has become commoditized. One strategic focus that banks can implement to remain competitive would be to retain as many customers as possible  [8]  . 4. As discussed earlier, financial sector has shown unprecedented growth after deregulation in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan financial markets have experienced drastic changes after financial liberalization during 1979 and that provokes competition among financial institutions especially in banking sector. This competition leads to the introduction of customer oriented products in the market to meet the expectations of customers. Satisfaction is a multidimensional construct which has been conceptualized as a prerequisite for building relationships and is generally described as the full meeting of ones expectations (Oliver, 1980). 5. The most significant trend, relevant to all industries, which characterizes in 21st century, is severe competition between companies. In current operational environment, defined by constant change and uncertainty, organisations are forced to seek new ways to achieve the competitive advantage. This is particularly true for financial services industry where deregulation has brought a considerable choice for customers in satisfying their needs. Banks have high financial leverage capital structure, where customers bank deposits are considered as a bank debt. Therefore, customer turnover may result not just in diminishing profit margin but also in financial services provider existence. Apart from that, loyalty and satisfaction resulting in switching to another financial services provider may be used as a competitive advantage for acquisition new market share enticing consumers of the competitor. 6. Customer satisfaction has become interesting tool for commercial banks with the competition and it has become a practice to keep customer satisfied by banks, as satisfied customers will enhance customer loyalty towards their banks which will ultimately improve banks performance and profitability. The importance of customer satisfaction cannot be dismissed because happy customers are like free advertising. Many of us have heard of the current trend for businesses to become highly customer-centric, that is to put the customer at the centre of our business in terms of our strategies, actions and processes. For most of us, old truths still hold well, such as it is easier and more profitable to sell to existing customers than to find new ones. In practice, organizations are increasingly setting themselves strategies to measure and ensure customer retention, and charging their staff to be more customer-focused and service-oriented. BACK GROUND OF THE STUDY 7. According to Central Bank of Sri Lanka the overall performance of Licensed Commercial Banks (LCBs) remained healthy due to improved profitability and the strengthening of their capital position. The activities of LCBs expanded at a moderate pace in the first half of 2010. Total assets of the LCBs expanded by Rs. 139 billion or 5.5 per cent due to a growth in lending activities coupled with an increase in investment in government securities and the equities market. Meanwhile, deposits increased by four per cent or Rs. 74 billion as against 9 per cent in the previous year due to the lower interest rates that prevailed in the market during the period  [9]  . 8. As mentioned earlier, banking sector has shown unprecedented growth after deregulation in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan financial markets experienced drastic changes after liberalization during early 1979 that provokes tough competition among financial institutions especially in banking sector. This competition leads to the introduction of customer orientedd products in the market to meet the expectations of customers. 9. According to the Fitch Ratings (2012)  [10]  , Sri Lankan banking sector is concentrated and dominated by public-sector banks that accounted for about half of sector assets at end of 2010. The six large banks identified as Systemically Important Banks (SIB)  [11]  accounted for 64 per cent of sector assets at end of 2010. They are Bank of Ceylon,Commercial Bank, Hatton National Bank, Peoples Bank, Sampath Bank and Seylan Bank. Fitch ratings has further pointed out that the Sri Lankan banking system experienced a strong upturn in profitability in 2010, with ROA increasing to 1.8 per cent, significantly above the 1.1 per cent average in 2000-2009, largely due to a reduction in credit costs. However, profitability decreased in 2011, with the sector posting an ROA of 1.6 per cent, largely due to the contraction in net interest margins (NIMs) with intensifying competition. 10. Almazari(2011)  [12]  was of the view that financial performance of a bank is its return on investment, return on assets, value additions and net assets value of a bank evaluates how the bank has used it assets to generate revenue. Further Almazari has pointed out that total assets of a bank also help to evaluate how well a bank is using its resources to make a profit. Total assets of commercial banks in Sri Lanka for the periods 2007-2011 is given below. The modern business world has expanded and competition has been created among businesses based on the profit. Financial services and assistance provided by the banking sector in Sri Lanka is at the top. These banks provide facilities not only for ordinary people but also for businessmen. Customer satisfaction plays a vital role in any successful business organization in todays business strategy. To go forward through this business banks have to compete with each other to achieve their goals, while fulfilling the basic requirements to satisfy their customers. At the very beginning, the main purpose of establishing banks were to give benefit for selected rich people, but at present, all levels of people are benefited and obtained the services from banks which have being expanded all over the country. The current banking industry in all over the world is going through turbulent times. In Sri Lanka with the lowering of entry barriers and blurring product lines of banks and non-banks since the financial sector reforms, banks are functioning increasingly under competitive pressures. This situation has created banks to maintain loyal customer base for individual banks. In order to maintain a loyal customer base and improve their market and profit positions, almost all the banks are directing their strategies towards increasing customer satisfaction and loyalty through improved service quality. In the present competitive Sri Lankan banking context, characterized by rapid change and increasingly sophisticated customers, it has become very important that banks in Sri Lanka as well to determine the service quality factors which are pertinent to the customers selection process. Therefore the current problem for the banking industry in Sri Lanka is to determine the dimensionality of custome r perception of service quality. This is because if service quality dimensions can be identified, bank should be able to improve the delivery of customer perception of quality during the service process and have greater control over the overall outcome. In relation to customer loyalty all banks in Sri Lanka has adopted various programmes to keep customers satisfied but according to discussion carried out earlier, public domestic banks are performing better than the government owned banks in the country. 12. Basically, Banks Profitability is measured with two major ratios that of Return on Average Assets and Return on Average Equity. Return on Average Assets and Return on Average Equity of five large commercial banks are for the period of five years from 2007 given below. Table 1:1 Return on Average Assets   Year BOC Peoples Bank Commercial Bank HNB Seylan ROAA ROAA ROAA ROAA ROAA Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 2007 1.11 1.4 1.67 0.87 0.67 2008 1.13 1.5 1.55 1.04 0.1 2009 0.82 1.4 1.43 1.42 0.38 2010 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.04 0.87 2011 2.01 2.5 1.98 1.78 0.64 Table 1:2 Returns on Average Equity   Year BOC Peoples Bank Commercial Bank HNB Seylan ROAE ROAE ROAE ROAE ROAE Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent 2007 14.59 20.5 20.63 35.9 13.84 2008 16.13 18.8 17.13 33.6 2.22 2009 12.85 19.7 15.83 28.9 6.2 2010 24.01 26.9 17.87 28.5 10.88 2011 33.74 42.9 20.76 24.1 6.78 (Source: Annual Reports year 2007 to 2011) 13. When ROAA and ROAE averaged for the last five years ranks of the banks on both ratios are given below. ROAA ROAE Commercial Bank Hatton National Bank Peoples Bank Peoples Bank Bank of Ceylon Bank of Ceylon Hatton National Bank Commercial Bank Seylan Bank Seylan Bank 14. From the above information it could be seen that two state owned banks has ranked number 2 and 3 in both ROAA and ROAE while a private bank has been the number 1 in ROAA and ROAE. This gives a mixed signal about the profitability of commercial banks in Sri Lanka. RESEARCH PROBLEM 15. According to the indication given in table 1 and further analysis, in terms of major measures in bank profitability, public domestic banks were headed in both measurement and two states banks were maintained second position. Therefore, the research problem for this study is as to why public domestic banks were headed in profitability and how two states banks were maintained second positions and whether it is customer satisfaction of the respective banks. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 16. Following objectives should be achieved at the end of this research. a. To discover the reasons that is attributed to the higher profits in public domestic commercial banks than the state owned commercial banks in Sri Lanka and, b. To ascertain whether it is due to customer satisfaction of the private commercial banks or any other reason. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 17. Discovering the performance between public domestic commercial banks and the state commercial banks will be more significant to the banking industry as well as to the government to introduce required mechanism to overcome the present problem if any prevailing in states banks in relation to the performances. Almost all financial institutions try to attract customers to them in the business environment .In that case commercial banks try to fulfill their customers needs in most efficient manner. Financial institutions should have the ability to identify the customers needs to give their service in efficient manner. Therefore, they have to provide good products, in good time to achieve profitability in the competitive environment. 18. The end results of this research that of customer satisfaction and commercial banks profitability in state owned and public banking companies will be of great contribution to the field in the academics and for the practitioners. This study will also assess and evaluate the level of satisfaction of the customers in the banking business in Sri Lanka which will contribute to the industry as well as to the policy makers. It will also reveal areas and factors that need consideration for improvement. Further at the end of the research, it is expected to cerate a good knowledge about what customer needs can be gained. With an understanding about the change of customer satisfaction which is depend on nature of customer, the bank can provides suitable services to their own customers. If the customer gets the service continually, the institution may also introduce innovations to their own customers. SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY 19. Scope of this study is to analyze all data that are available to find out as to why state commercial banks are earning less profit than the public domestic commercial banks including service quality and customer satisfaction and non-performing assets if necessary arises. Accordingly, the study will be using both primary and secondary data. In studying service quality and customer satisfaction data have to be collected through a questionnaire but in analysing NPA banks actual information which are recorded in financial statements have to consider. There is no limitation in acquiring secondary data as all information are available in the annual reports of the banks. For the purpose of collecting data there is a limitation of selection of banks. Also, when considering the profit of the banks, only internal factors that are related to the banks leaving external factors as they are beyond the scope of the study.

Free Essays - Consequences of Passion in Othello :: Othello essays

Consequences of Passion in Othello Being too passionate about something or someone, can sometimes over ride one's good judgement. Too much passion can bring about ever-lasting consequences and regrets. When put into a tense, specific situation, you usually wont make wise choices. You wont stop and think, "what is going on" or "what is the right thing to do" but instead, we let our emotions take over. For instance, in the play Othello, Othello is passionately in love with his wife and when he hears a disturbing rumor about her, instead of thinking over what he heard or if it is true, he let his jealousy take over his actions. In Othello, Iago, Othello's dear truthful friend, wants to ruin Othello's life by "plaguing" his mind of depressing thoughts. He plans to tell Othello that his wife, Desdemona, is cheating on him with his ex-lieutenant, Cassio. "At least jealousy so strong that judgment cannot cure." (p. 79, Iago) Othello being passionately in love with Desdemona begins to believe the rumors he is told, and it breaks his heart. He is not only envious that his beloved wife would cheat on him with Cassio but that idea of her not loving him, troubled him the most. "By heaven, thou echo'st me/ As if there were some monster in thy thought/ too hideous to be shown." ( W.S, 3.3; 121) Othello's emotions begin to grow from jealously to anger. He has never been heart broken before and now all his emotions of melancholy is running through his mind. "How shall I murder him, Iago?" (p. 171, 4.1) Already Othello had sunken in everything Iago had said. Not thinking straight and letting his emotions ru n untamed, he can only think of death as a way to resolve everything. He soon pays for his jealousy rage by taking both his wife and his own life. In addition, from the play, Iago seems to let his infatuation over seek his reasoning as well. Iago is one of Othello's respectable friends. When Othello, the General, had to pick a lieutenant, he chose Cassio. Iago was furious at Othello's decision. He wanted to be lieutenant with his dear Othello, but when hearing that he chose Cassio, Iago breaks out like a beast expressing all his fury and resentment.